Introduction
The distinction between excessive and functional internet use is unclear because the internet is deeply integrated into daily life [1]. Functional internet use in adolescents involves accessing a wealth of information, conducting research, engaging in social communication, and enjoying fast and cheap communication options, such as e-mail and video chat [2]. However, excessive internet use can cause various problems in social, health, and academic domains for adolescents [2]. Due to their immature self-control and easy access to the internet, adolescents are considered vulnerable and at risk of developing internet addiction [3]. Research on internet addiction has been highlighted, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, and the research results have shown that internet addiction has serious consequences among adolescents, such as anxiety/depression, academic underachievement, and social isolation [4, 5]. Reinforcing behaviors, such as video chatting, messaging, playing video games, watching TV series, using social media, or surfing the internet are often employed to relieve stress, anxiety, or depressive moods [5, 6]. These potentially addictive behaviors can help alleviate the stress of daily life problems and intrusive thoughts [5, 7]. Although these behaviors may serve as non-problematic and potentially beneficial coping strategies, they may also lead to reduced normal social interactions and participation in other daily activities for a small proportion of individuals [8]. As a result, the adoption of such behaviors as coping strategies carries the risk of transforming into habits that are challenging to quit [9, 10].
Media literacy is considered a crucial skill in the 21st century, especially in the era of the internet [11]. It encompasses the competencies and technological knowledge essential for individuals to cultivate long-term learning behaviors and positive contributions to society [12]. Given the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, media literacy and digital literacy can be considered critical skills for today’s internet landscape [13]. Media literacy includes various forms of literacy, such as information literacy, computer literacy, digital literacy, communication literacy, visual literacy, and technological literacy [12]. With such broad coverage, media literacy can empower adolescents to effectively utilize online information resources and develop an awareness of safe internet practices [12]. The most effective approach to protect adolescents from potential negative content on the internet is media literacy education [14]. Media literacy not only enhances youth’s information retrieval skills but also fosters critical thinking skills while using the internet [15]. In other words, functional internet use necessitates certain media literacy skills. Media literacy skills can help adolescents become responsible internet users by teaching them how to deal with internet-related risks [14]. Studies indicate that adolescents with high media literacy skills demonstrate heightened awareness, curiosity, creativity, and proficiency in using social media, e-mail, Skype, and internet browsing [16, 17]. Therefore, the internet age underscores the significance of media literacy education to reduce excessive and problematic internet behaviors and promote safe internet usage.
Since it is impossible to mention the causal relationship between problematic internet use and specific adolescent behaviors or outcomes, it is challenging to establish an obvious understanding of the internet’s impact on adolescent behavior [14]. We know that the internet and the content they are exposed to can influence their thoughts and behaviors. Griffiths [18] suggests that excessive internet use in adolescents may cause negative consequences, including problematic or addictive behaviors, as the internet loses its utility. Given the high prevalence of internet use among adolescents, it raises concerns about the potential risks of problematic internet use. As mentioned, media literacy education plays a crucial role in fostering awareness and responsible internet use in adolescents. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the relationship between adolescents’ media literacy skills and their internet use. In other words, it was conducted to examine internet addiction and media literacy among adolescents. 

Methods 
Research design
The research was designed as a cross-sectional study, giving a snapshot of the outcome and associated factors at a single time. Cross-sectional studies are typically conducted to investigate the relationships between risk factors and the outcome of interest [19].

Participants
This cross-sectional study was conducted with adolescents aged 15-18 years in Ankara Province, Turkey. Since all public high schools receive the same funding from the state, no socioeconomic classification was made between schools. Consequently, four districts were randomly chosen from 25 districts in Ankara Province, and two state high schools were randomly chosen from the four districts. Eight schools were identified. The research population included students studying in the 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th grades in eight public high schools in Ankara Province in the academic year 2020-2021. The inclusion criteria included adolescents aged 15-18 years, living in Ankara Province, studying at a public high school, and being volunteers. Adolescents who did not meet these criteria were not included in the study. 
Since the data were collected during the COVID-19 pandemic, the sample selection was not feasible, and the study included adolescents who volunteered. G*Power software, version 3.1 was used to determine the sample size, and we found that at least 387 adolescents were sufficient at a power analysis level of 0.95, which shows that the number of our participants is suitable for this study. A total of 401 adolescents voluntarily participated in the study. 

Data collection tools 
Data collection tools included a personal information form,” “NMLS,” and “YIAT-SF.”

Personal information form 
The form was prepared by the researcher to collect demographic information of the participating adolescents. 

New media literacy scale (NMLS)
Koç and Barut developed the NMLS to assess individuals’ media literacy levels [20]. It consists of 35 items and 4 sub-dimensions, functional consumption (FC), critical consumption (CC), functional prosumption (FP), and critical prosumption (CP). Participants rate each item on a 5-point Likert-type scale, where 5 represents “strongly agree,” 4 represents “agree,” 3 represents “undecided,” 2 represents “disagree,” and 1 represents “strongly disagree.” High scores on the scale indicate a higher level of new media literacy. The reliability coefficient of the scale is 0.965 [20], and it has no reverse items. The minimum total score that can be obtained on the NMLS is 35, and the maximum total score is 175 [20]. 

Young’s internet addiction test-short form (YIAT-SF)
The YIAT-SF scale was developed by young and its Turkish adaptation was conducted by Kutlu et al. [21]. YIAT-SF comprises 12 items and is a five-point Likert scale (1=never, 5=very often). No reverse-scored item is found on the scale. The scores on the scale range from 12 to 60. High scores on the scale indicate a higher level of internet addiction. 

Data collection
Following the approval of the research by the Ethics Committee and obtaining permission from the Ankara Provincial Directorate of National Education for the research, interviews were held with the principals of eight selected schools in the four designated districts. After the principals were informed about the research goals and implementation process, an announcement was made within the schools. The same announcement was also shared with the parent information groups. Since the data collection coincided with school closures due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the data forms were prepared online using Google Forms and administered to the students. Intermittent announcements were made to encourage participation. 

Data analysis
The data were analyzed using the SPSS software, version 25. Before analyzing the scale results, the Shapiro-Wilk normality test was performed, revealing that the data were not normally distributed. Therefore, non-parametric tests were preferred for the analyses. The Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis H tests were employed to examine the potential differences in internet addiction and media literacy levels among adolescents based on sociodemographic variables. Subsequently, Tamhane’s T2 post hoc test was performed to identify the group responsible for the observed differences. Spearman correlation analysis and point-biserial correlation analysis were performed to determine the relationship between adolescents’ internet addiction and media literacy levels considering sociodemographic variables. Multivariate regression analysis was performed for the variables found to be correlated.

Results 
The results were presented about the research questions. Table 1 presents the sociodemographic characteristics of the adolescents.


Table 2 presents the results of adolescents’ internet addiction and media literacy levels.


As shown in Table 2, the NMLS mean score among adolescents is x̄=126.76, suggesting high media literacy levels. In terms of the sub-dimensions, the CC sub-dimension has the highest mean score (x̄=44.38), while the FC (x̄=26.12) and FP (x̄=26.12) have relatively low averages. Additionally, the YIAT-SF mean score among the participants is x̄=39.01, indicating that they are in the risky group regarding internet addiction.
By examining Table 3, several observations can be made.








For example, no significant difference is observed between girls and boys in media literacy levels, while boys’ internet addiction levels are higher than girls. Although most adolescents have not received education, their media literacy levels remain high and significant. While the media literacy skills of adolescents increase as their age and grade levels increase, no difference is observed in internet addiction based on age or grade level. The duration of internet use does not make a significant difference in either media literacy or internet addiction (Table 4 and Table 5). 





Discussion
It has been determined that the media literacy levels of adolescents are high, exposing them to the risk of internet addiction. Although they have not received media literacy education, their high media literacy level may suggest that adolescents can be conscious users because it indicates that they use media wisely and purposefully. Besides, based on the results, adolescents are expected to develop a more critical perspective and use the internet consciously. However, their excessive use of social media may raise concerns regarding the reliability of their information sources. Research shows this age group is particularly vulnerable to unreliable internet resources [22]. Additionally, adolescents regularly consume content on social media, which is their preferred internet platform [23]. However, more research is required to relate social media content consumption with critical thinking skills in real-life contexts. 
Another significant result is that most adolescents use the internet for more than 7 hours daily, exposing them to the risk for internet addiction. As known, increased internet use is one of the indicators of a higher likelihood of internet addiction [24]. The results stress that adolescents primarily use the internet for social media and gaming. Adolescents’ aimless use of social media can lead to negative consequences in their lives [25, 26]. Researchers indicate that media-literate adolescents are less likely to encounter internet-related risks [27]. Besides, new media literacy enables adolescents to become familiar with the internet and its applications, information types, and models, as well as the ability to critically analyze and evaluate online information [28]. It is noteworthy that CC scores are the highest among the sub-dimensions of the media literacy scale. In this regard, the obtained result is consistent with the existing literature. 
The average media literacy of girls and internet addiction in boys is high. Additionally, media literacy increases with age and grade level. The adolescents’ media literacy is positively influenced by their age, grade level, and media literacy education. The results of the regression analysis support this result. In a study conducted by Üstündağ [29], adolescents’ media literacy levels were high. Similarly, other studies examining media literacy levels have concluded that girls have higher averages in skills, such as critical viewing, information seeking, using, and evaluating, as well as media literacy compared to boys [30, 31, 32, 33]. Since media literacy requires various cognitive skills, such as understanding, analysis, comprehension, inference-making, and critical thinking, adolescents’ high results without any training are considered crucial results. It also suggests that adolescents can become much more conscious media users by receiving a structured media literacy education. Previous studies have shown a significant difference between grade levels and media literacy levels among adolescents [34, 35, 36]. As adolescents’ age increases, their cognitive development and critical thinking skills begin to approach to adult level. Thus, it is expected and plausible that a positive impact is observed as the level of media literacy increases with age and progresses through higher grade levels. The obtained results show the importance and impact of cognitive development as well as media literacy education. 
Besides, internet addiction in adolescents hurts gender, age, and grade levels. Regression analysis results also confirm this result. Several studies have shown that boys tend to show higher levels of internet addiction [37-41]. This result can be attributed to boys being more prone to use the internet for gaming and having higher positive attitudes and self-efficacy perceptions toward technology use than girls [42]. Boys’ online gaming addiction levels are higher than girls [43]. Progression of age and increase in grade level follow a similar pattern. While internet addiction is associated with age by Doğan [44], other studies indicate a significant difference between internet addiction and grade level [45-47]. Therefore, the obtained results are consistent with previous results in the literature.
Lastly, the media literacy of adolescents has a positive impact on internet addiction. Research results similarly indicate that media literacy predicts internet addiction [48, 49]. In addition, Chen et al. [28] stress that an individual with new media literacy skills is more likely to be a critical media user. Therefore, adolescents with high media literacy are expected to show more conscious internet use. It is worth noting that the duration of internet use may have been influenced by the pandemic period during which the research was conducted. 
Even though this study produced critical results, it is necessary to mention the limitations. Our sample was limited to Ankara Province. Besides, the research was conducted during the pandemic and curfews, which may have influenced the results. Therefore, as a suggestion to researchers, we recommend conducting studies with adolescents living in other provinces to get a more comprehensive understanding.
The strengths of this study are as follows, the results were obtained through adolescents’ self-reports, it emphasizes the importance of providing media literacy education to adolescents, and demonstrates that media literacy of adolescents explains internet addictions. When media literacy levels increase, internet addiction decreases and has a rigorous approach to data analysis.
While it may be difficult to counteract the detrimental effects of the rapid flow of information on the internet, it is possible to guide adolescents to use it correctly and optimally through media literacy education. Teachers play a crucial role in assisting adolescents to become conscious users, both by serving as role models and by providing media literacy training. Adolescents can navigate the internet more effectively by addressing the identified deficiencies and receiving support from teachers through training programs.
High-risk internet addiction among adolescents is a worldwide public health problem. From a public health perspective, low media literacy education and high-risk internet addiction may help to recognize the importance and urgency of healthy lifestyles in the adolescent population. Therefore, this research makes a crucial contribution to the literature on the well-being of adolescents worldwide. Based on the results among Turkish adolescents, identifying and addressing early signs of risk in addiction provides an opportunity to enable adolescents worldwide to progress healthier through adolescence.

Conclusion
Internet addiction has become a prevalent issue among adolescents, as shown by the research results. We underscore the importance of media literacy education in enhancing media literacy and reducing internet addiction. The fact that all adolescents are internet users but have yet to receive media literacy training reveals a critical issue that requires intervention and addresses a crucial deficiency. Therefore, it is essential to provide media literacy education to adolescents by making necessary curriculum adjustments.
Considering the results, it is evident that media literacy predicts internet addiction. Given the significant role of the internet in the lives of adolescents and its high usage rates, this study makes a critical contribution to the literature on media and adolescents, emphasizing that media literacy fosters awareness and enables adolescents to become conscious users. 

Ethical Considerations
Compliance with ethical guidelines
The permission of the Ethics Committee was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee of Hamidiye University of Health Sciences for the research (No.: 21/535, Date: 06.08.2021).

Funding
This research did not receive any grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-profit sectors.

Conflict of interest
The author declared no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments
The author want to thank all adolescents who participated in the research.


References

1. Kuss DJ. van Rooij AJ. Shorter GW. Griffiths MD. van de Mheen D. Internet addiction in adolescents: Prevalence and risk factors. Computers in Human Behavior. 2013; 29(5):1987-96. [DOI:10.1016/j.chb.2013.04.002]
2. Abdullah MQ. The relationship between ınternet addiction and temperament among children and adolescents. Psychology and Behavioral Science International Journal. 2017; 5(5):555674. [DOI:10.19080/PBSIJ.2017.05.555674]
3. Li X. Newman J, Li D, Zhang H. Temperament and adolescent problematic Internet use: The mediating role of deviant peer affiliation. Computers in Human Behavior. 2016; 60:342-50. [DOI:10.1016/j.chb.2016.02.075]
4. Chen IH, Chen CY, Pakpour AH, Griffiths MD, Lin CY, Li XD, et al. Problematic internet-related behaviors mediate the associations between levels of internet engagement and distress among schoolchildren during COVID-19 lockdown: A longitudinal structural equation modeling study. Journal of Behavioral Addictions. 2021; 10(1):135-48. [DOI:10.1556/2006.2021.00006]
5. Király O, Potenza MN, Stein DJ, King DL, Hodgins DC, Saunders JB, et al. Preventing problematic internet use during the COVID-19 pandemic: Consensus guidance. Comprehensive Psychiatry. 2020; 100:152180. [DOI:10.1016/j.comppsych.2020.152180]
6. Blasi MD, Giardina A, Giordano C, Coco GL, Tosto C, Billieux J, et al. Problematic video game use as an emotional coping strategy: Evidence from a sample of MMORPG gamers. Journal of Behavioral Addictions. 2019; 8(1):25-34. [DOI:10.1556/2006.8.2019.02]
7. Király O, Urbán R, Griffiths MD, Ágoston C, Nagygyörgy K, Kökönyei G, et al. The Mediating effect of gaming motivation between psychiatric symptoms and problematic online gaming: An online survey. Journal of Medical Internet Research. 2015; 17(4):e88. [DOI:10.2196/jmir.3515]
8. Billieux J, Schimmenti A, Khazaal Y, Maurage P, Heeren A. Are we overpathologizing everyday life? A tenable blueprint for behavioral addiction research. Journal of Behavioral Addictions. 2015; 4(3):119-23. [DOI:10.1556/2006.4.2015.009]
9. King DL, Delfabbro PH, Billieux J, Potenza MN. Problematic online gaming and the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Behavioral Addictions. 2020; 9(2):184-6. [DOI:10.1556/2006.2020.00016]
10. Ko CH, Yen JY. Impact of COVID-19 on gaming disorder: Monitoring and prevention. Journal of Behavioral Addictions. 2020; 9(2):187-9. [DOI:10.1556/2006.2020.00040]
11. Griffin P, Care E. Assessment and teaching of 21st century skills: Methods and approach.Berlin: Springer; 2015. [DOI:10.1007/978-94-017-9395-7]
12. Çam E, Kıyıcı M. Perceptions of prospective teachers on digital literacy. Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Technology. 2017; 5(4):35-50. [Link]
13. American Academy of Pediatrics. COVID-19 AAP interim Guidance for safe schools (1/5/2021) frequently asked questions about schools re-opening. Itasca: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2021. [Link]
14. Üstünda A. Child and screen. [Digital media and child development (Turkish)]. Ankara: Educating Book; 2020.
15. Zulkarnain Z, Heleni S, Thahir M. Digital literacy skills of math students through e-learning in COVID-19 era: A case study in Universitas Riau. Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 2020; 1663(1):012015. [DOI:10.1088/1742-6596/1663/1/012015]
16. Akbar MF, Anggaraeni FD. [Teknologi dalam Pendidikan: Literasi digital dan selfdirected learning pada mahasiswa skripsi (Malay)]. Indigenous: Jurnal Ilmiah Psikologi. 2017; 2(1):28-38. [DOI:10.23917/indigenous.v1i1.4458]
17. Shopova T. Digital literacy of students and its improvement at the university. Journal on Efficiency and Responsibility in Education and Science. 2014; 7(2):26-32. [DOI:10.7160/eriesj.2014.070201]
18. Griffiths MD. Internet addiction - Time to be taken seriously? Addiction Research. 2000; 8(5):413-8. [DOI:10.3109/16066350009005587]
19. Metin M. Scientific research methods in education from theory. Ankara: Pegem Academy Publishing; 2014. [Link]
20. Koç M, Barut E. Development and validation of New Media Literacy Scale (NMLS) for university students. Computers in Human Behavior. 2016; 63:834-43. [DOI:10.1016/j.chb.2016.06.035]
21. Kutlu M, Savcı M, Demir Y, Aysan F. Turkish adaptation of Young’s Internet Addiction Test-Short Form: A reliability and validity study on university students and adolescents. Alpha Psychiatry. 2016; 17(1):69-76. [DOI:10.5455/apd.190501]
22. Potter WJ. The state of media literacy. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media. 2010; 54(4):675-696. [DOI:10.1080/08838151.2011.521462]
23. Notley T, Dezuanni M, Zhong HF, Howden S. News and Australian children: How young people access, perceive and are affected by the news. Sydney: Western Sydney University; 2017. [Link]
24. Derin S, Bilge F. Internet addiction and the level of subjective well-being in adolescents. Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal. 2016; 6(46):35-51. [Link]
25. Odacı H. Çıkrıkçı Ö. Problematic internet use in terms of gender, attachment styles and subjective well-being in university students. Computers in Human Behavior. 2014; 32:61-6. [DOI:10.1016/j.chb.2013.11.019]
26. Spada MM. An overview of problematic internet use. Addictive Behaviors. 2014; 39(1):3-6. [DOI:10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.09.007]
27. Leung L, Lee PS. The influences of information literacy, internet addiction and parenting styles on internet risks. New Media & Society. 2012; 14(1):117-36. [DOI:10.1177/1461444811410406]
28. Chen DT. Wu J. Wang YM. Unpacking new media literacy. Journal of Systemics, Cybernetics and Informatics. 2011; 9(2):84-8. [Link]
29. Üstündağ A. Investigation of media literacy levels of young people in terms of various variables during the COVID-19 pandemic process. Journal of Youth Studies. 2021; 9(25):52-68. [Link]
30. Akalın B. Yalman F. Baydili K. Modanlıoğlu A. Sancar T. Determining the relationship between new media literacy and health literacy behaviors of young individuals. Journal of Health and Social Welfare Research. 2021; 3(2):136-44. [Link]
31. Aslan N, Basel AT. Media literacy levels of students ın education faculty (Izmir Sample). Kastamonu Education Journal. 2017; 25(4):1353-72. [Link]
32. Barut E. New media literacy, communication skills and democratic tendency: A structural equation modelin (Turkkish) [MSc thesis]. Çünür: Suleyman Demirel University; 2015. [Link]
33. Tuğtekin EB. Examining New Media Literacy Levels of University Students. Inonu University Journal of the Faculty of Education. 2021; 22(3):2431-59. [DOI:10.17679/inuefd.1005030]
34. Güven İ. [Examination of information literacy and media literacy levels of science and technology teacher candidates (Turkish)]. Electronic Turkish Studies. 2014; 9(2):787-800. [Link]
35. Özer N. Çelik S. Özatlı NS. [The investigation of media literacy levels of digital age x, y, z generations by different variables: Example of Balikesir (Turkish)]. Kırıkkale University Journal of Social Sciences. 2021; 1(1):217-32. [Link]
36. Som S, Kurt AA. [Media literacy levels of students attending the department of computer education and ınstructional technologies (Turkish)]. Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International. 2012; 2(1):104-19. [Link]
37. Ateş MK. [An investigation of secondary school students’ problematic internet use and metacognitive strategies (Turkish)] [MSc thesis]. Gaziantep: Gaziantep University; 2016. [Link]
38. Gholamian B, Shahnazi H, Hassanzadeh A. The prevalence of internet addiction and its association with depression, anxiety, and stress, among high school students. International Journal of Pediatrics. 2017; 5(4):4763-70. [DOI:10.22038/ijp.2017.22516.1883]
39. Ko CH, Yen JY, Chen CS, Yeh YC, Yen CF. Predictive values of psychiatric symptoms for internet addiction in adolescents. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine. 2009; 163(10):937-43. [DOI:10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.159]
40. Vigna-Taglianti F, Brambilla R, Priotto B, Angelino R, Cuomo G, Diecidue R. Problematic internet use among high school students: Prevalence, associated factors and gender differences. Psychiatry Research. 2017; 257:163-71. [DOI:10.1016/j.psychres.2017.07.039]
41. Yanardağ R, Lale S. Investigation of high school students' internet addiction levels according to various variables. Journal of Medical Social Work. 2022; 20:50-66. [DOI:10.46218/tshd.1170282]
42. Atalan ED. [The effects of adolescent attachment, parental mediation, and impulsivity on problematic internet use and academic achievement (Turkish) [PhD dissertation]. Ankara: Ankara University; 2018. [Link]
43. Koçoğlu D. [Investigating consumer decision making styles of college students according to the online game addictıon stage (Turkish)]. MANAS Journal of Social Studies. 2019; 2:1815-30. [DOI:10.33206/mjss.463117]
44. Doğan A. [Internet addiction prevalence (Turkish)] [MSc thesis]. Izmir: Dokuz Eylul University; 2013. [Link]
45. Kaçar S. [The examination of problematic internet usage on adolescents in terms of attachment styles and some socio-variables (Turkish)] [MSc thesis]. Istanbul: Maltepe University; 2017. [Link]
46. Taş İ. [Examination of internet addiction and psychological symptoms in adolescents in terms of various variables (Turkish)]. Journal of Social Sciences of Mus Alparslan University. 2018; 6(1):31-41. [DOI:10.18506/anemon.310973]
47. Yılmaz E, Şahin Y, Haseski H, Erol O. An analysis of internet addiction among high school students with respect to several variables: Balıkesir Province sample. Journal of Educational Sciences Research. International E-Journal. 2014; 4(1):133-44. [DOI:10.12973/jesr.2014.41.7]
48. Korkmaz Ö. Çakır R. Öztürk Y. [Investigation of correct internet usage within the framework of information literacy, media literacy and internet addiction (Turkish)]. Journal of Research in Education and Teaching. 2018; 7(4):27-39. [Link]
49. Shirzad M, Taraghi Khah Dilmaghani N, Lafte A. The role of media literacy in health literacy and Internet addiction among female postgraduate students. Journal of Research and Health. 2019; 9(3):254-60. [DOI:10.29252/jrh.9.3.254]